Mass balance for glaciers in Svalbard
Last updated 15 March 2023.
Melting glaciers are in focus due to climate change and rising temperatures. In Svalbard, several glaciers are monitored to detect the potential loss of mass. Mass balance is the difference between glacier growth in winter due to precipitation and glacier reduction in summer due to melting and runoff. All glaciers presented here have had a reduction in mass through the monitoring period.
What is being monitored?
Mass balance for glaciers in Svalbard
The figure shows the cumulative net balance throughout the monitoring periods for the five glaciers, Austre Brøggerbreen, Midtre Lovénbreen, Kongsvegen, Kronebreen/Holtedahlfonna and Etonbreen (Austfonna). Cumulative net balance is roughly equivalent to the volume change; there is a strong negative trend for Austre Brøggerbreen and Midtre Lovénbreen, in accordance with the observed retreat of these glaciers. There was a relatively long period of increased loss from 2000 to 2005, longer than any other periods in the time series. Kongsvegen increased in volume until 2002, but since then the mass balance has also been increasingly negative.
(Cite these data: Norwegian Polar Institute, University of Oslo (2023). Cumulative mass balance for glaciers in Svalbard. Environmental monitoring of Svalbard and Jan Mayen (MOSJ). URL: https://mosj.no/en/climate/land/mass-balance-glaciers.html)
The figure shows the winter, summer and net balance for Austre Brøggerbreen measured in metres water equivalents. The mass balance has been almost exclusively negative throughout the measurement period.
(Cite these data: Norwegian Polar Institute (2023). Austre Brøggerbreen mass balance. Environmental monitoring of Svalbard and Jan Mayen (MOSJ). URL: https://mosj.no/en/climate/land/mass-balance-glaciers.html)
The figure shows the winter, summer and net balance for Midtre Lovénbreen measured in metres water equivalents. The mass balance has been almost exclusively negative throughout the measurement period.
(CIte these data: Norwegian Polar Institute (2023). Midtre Lovénbreen mass balance. Environmental monitoring of Svalbard and Jan Mayen (MOSJ). URL: https://mosj.no/en/climate/land/mass-balance-glaciers.html)
The figure shows the winter, summer and net balance for Kongsvegen. The mass balance is more positive for Kongsvegen than for Austre Brøggerbreen and Midtre Lovenbreen. This difference is because Kongsvegen is located higher than the other glaciers and has a larger accumulation area. However, the net balance on Kongsvegen has gradually shifted from positive to negative. The net balance was positive towards year 2000, but now the glacier seems to be in a long-term decline.
(Cite these data: Norwegian Polar Institute (2023). Kongsvegen mass balance. Environmental monitoring of Svalbard and Jan Mayen (MOSJ). URL: https://mosj.no/en/climate/land/mass-balance-glaciers.html)
The figure shows the winter, summer and net balance with and witout calving for Kronebreen and Holtedahlfonna, measured as metre water equivalents. The mass balance has beenvarying around zero during the measurement period, but would be almost exclusively negative if calving and marine melting at the terminus were accounted for.
(Cite these data: Norwegian Polar Institute (2023). Kronebreen/Holtedahlfonna mass balance. Environmental monitoring of Svalbard and Jan Mayen (MOSJ). URL: https://mosj.no/en/climate/land/mass-balance-glaciers.html)
The figure shows the winter, summer and net balance with and without calving, for Etonbreen on Austfonna ice cap, measured as metre water equivalents. The net mass balance has typically varied around zero, , except for an exceptionally positive year in 2008 and three very negative years in 2004,2013 and 2020, which means that the cumulative balance for the entire period is also negative. Calving and marine melting at the glacier front cause a small additional mass loss.
(Cite these data: Norwegian Polar Institute, University of Oslo (2023). Etonbreen (Austfonna) mass balance. Environmental monitoring of Svalbard and Jan Mayen (MOSJ). URL: https://mosj.no/en/climate/land/mass-balance-glaciers.html)
Details on these data
| Last updated | 15 March 2023 |
| Update interval | Yearly |
| Next update | February 2024 |
| Commissioning organization | Ministry of Climate and Environment |
| Executive organization | Norwegian Polar Institute |
| Contact persons | Jack Kohler Geir Moholdt |
Method
Winter mass-balance measurements comprise measurements of the snow depth towards the end of the winter. The snow depth is obtained by using a snow probe to undertake measurements over the whole glacier, insofar as this is possible, and by recording measurements on stakes along the centre line of the glacier. Snow thickness is then converted to total mass by measuring the snow density in a snow pit. The winter mass balance is usually measured in April or May, when the snow has reached its approximate maximum thickness.
The summer balance is obtained by computing the change in the exposed stake between spring and the end of the melt season. The latter measurements are made in September or sometimes as late as October.
The net balance is then the sum of the winter balance and the summer balance.
Winter, summer, and net balances are extrapolated from individual measurement points to the whole glacier using hypsometry, that is, the distribution of the surface area in 50-metre elevation levels obtained from maps or digital elevation models (DEM). We are assuming implicitly that the various mass balance terms vary mainly as a function of elevation. These maps and DEMs should be updated every 5–10 years.
Quality
Based on the actual measurements, the margin of error in such measurements is difficult to determine exactly, but several scientists have estimated 0.1–0.2 m w.eq. (metres of water equivalent).
Status and trend
All 5 glaciers lost mass during their respective monitoring periods.
In the period 1986–2002 Kongsvegen had a positive trend, due mainly to the fact that Kongsvegen lies at higher altitudes than the small glaciers Austre Brøggerbreen and Midtre Lovénbreen, and therefore has a significantly larger accumulation area. After 2002, Kongsvegen also shows a declining trend after several years with unusually negative mass balances.
The accumulation area of Kronebreen/Holtedahlfonna lies even higher than at Kongsvegen, but since there is less winter precipitation on Holtedahlfonna compared to Kongsvegen, the measured mass balance is about the same as Kongsvegen, but more negative when including calving and marine melting at the glacier front. Etonbreen on Austfonna has not changed much during the measurement period except from a few years with very negative summer balance.
Causal factors
Mass balance is controlled by the amount of precipitation on the glacier in winter and the amount of melting in summer. Climate change is thus the main reason for a negative mass balance for glaciers.
Consequences
An important reason for monitoring mass balance is to quantify how much the melting glaciers of Svalbard contribute to rising sea level.
About a third of the global sea-level rise is due to melting of “small” glaciers, meaning all glaciers except Greenland and Antarctica, noting quite large error margins for the estimates. Hence, it is important to quantify the sea level contributions from the different ice-covered areas.
Svalbard plays a significant role in this as it has about 10% of the total ice-covered area in the Arctic (except Greenland). In addition the melting rates in Svalbard are relatively high due to Svalbard’s location in a relatively warm part of the Arctic.
About the monitoring
The mass balance of a glacier is the difference between accumulation in winter and ablation in summer, and is thus a measure of whether the glacier as a whole is increasing or shrinking. The mass balance is primarily dependent upon the precipitation in winter and the temperature in summer, but calving and marine melting are also important for some glaciers that terminate in the ocean.
It is interesting to monitor mass balance because melting of glaciers can contribute to sea-level rise. Glaciers also influence the local climate and the conditions for fauna and flora in Svalbard.
Places and areas
- Kronebreen/Holtedalsfonna
The locality consists of various glaciers belonging to the drainage area for Kronebreen. Place names include Kronebreen, Holtedahlsfonna, Dovrebreen and Infantfonna. - Austre Brøggerbreen
- Midtre Lovénbreen
- Kongsvegen
- Etonbreen (Austfonna)
Relations to other monitoring
Monitoring programme
- None
International environmental agreements
- None
Voluntary international cooperation
Related monitoring
- None
Further reading
Links
- World Glacier Monitoring Service
Overview on available information on glacier fluctuations or to search for specific glaciers. - World Glacier Inventory
Publications
- Kaser, G., Fountain, A., & Jansson, P. (2002). A manual for monitoring the mass balance of mountain glaciers. IHP-VI – Technical Documents in Hydrology, No. 59. UNESCO, Paris, 2003.
- Schuler, T. V., Kohler, J., Elagina, N., Hagen, J. O. M., Hodson, A. J., Jania, J. A., … & Van Pelt, W. J. (2020). Reconciling Svalbard glacier mass balance. Frontiers in Earth Science, 156. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.00156.
- Østrem, G., & Brugmann, M. (1991). Glacier Mass-Balance Measurements. A manual for field and office work. NHRI Science Report 4, 224 pp. National Hydrology Research Institute, Environment Canda.
